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Monday, November 12, 2012

Youth and Crime

The recent media reports have overwhelming content on youth crime. A number of studies have also gone on to report upon the extent and nature of those crimes. The government and the reform agencies including the juvenile justice system have responded accordingly. In this essay we propose to discuss dimensions, experiences and causes of the problems, as well as the policy responses to them.

Extent of the Problem

According to Nacro youth crime fact sheet, "Offending by young people is relatively common. Some 33 % of males aged 15-16 years in self report studies, for example, admit committing at least one offence within the past 12 months. At the same time, public perceptions tend to overstate the extent of crime which is attributable to young people: 28% believe that young people are responsible for more than half of all offences; and a further 55% consider that responsibility for crime is shared equally by adults and young people. In fact during 1999, 76% of detected crime was committed by persons over the age of 18. Offenders over 21 years were responsible were responsible for over 60% of detected offending"

Youth and Crime

According to a survey carried out by the Joseph Rowntree Foundation, published in 2002, based on the sample size of 14000 exposed some of the unknown facts on youth crime in the U.K. According to the survey, almost half of Britain's secondary school children admitted breaking the law at some time; a third of 14-15 year olds admitted committing criminal damage and a quarter admitted shoplifting in the past year; one in five 15-16 year old boys admitted to attacking some one with the intention to cause serious harm; one in 10 boys in the age group 11-12 said they had carried a knife or other weapon in the past year and 8 percent admitted to having attacked someone with an intention to cause serious harm. One in 10 boys aged 15 and 16 had broken into a building to steal during the previous year including 4 percent who said they had done so three or four times; a quarter of 13 to 14 year olds indulged in binge drinking, consuming five or more alcoholic drinks in one session; serious drug problems were also identified.

According to the Youth Lifestyle Survey (YLS) carried among 4848 respondents (aged between 12 and 30 yrs.) between October 1998 and January 1999 several youth offences were reported. Almost half of 12-30 year olds admitted committing at least on of the 27 offences at some stage of their lives (57% men and 37% women). The other reported findings were as follows:

- almost a fifth (19%) of 12 to 30 year olds admitted one or more offence in the last 12 months. Women were less likely to have offended (11%) as compared to men (26%).

- At the time of the reported offence, about half (48% of men and 59% of women) had committed only one or two offences.

- Among all offences in 12 to 30 year olds, those in the age 14-21 committed most while those in the youngest (12 to 13) and oldest (26 to 30) age groups committed the least.

- The offending began at an average age of 13 ½ for boys and 14 for girls

- The rates of offending are highest among men aged 18 - the peak age of offending; among women the peak age of offending is 14.

- At the ages 12 and 13 there is little difference in boys and girls in offending including drug use and drinking. The difference becomes marked after the age of 14, and over the age of 17, male offenders outnumber the women by a ratio of about 3:1.

A number of reports have unanimously pointed out a perceptible decrease in youth crimes over the last 15 years. For instance the Joseph Rowntree Foundation, between 1983 and 1993 there was a drop of 42% among the 10 to 13 year old boys who were found guilty or cautioned for more serious more serious "indictable" offences. The corresponding decline among 14-17 year old boys was 15%. However, it was also pointed out at the same time that the perceptible decrease was illusory, as the police-recorded crime statistics and the national surveys of the victims of crime together agree that within the same period there has been a dramatic increase in offences like burglary and vehicle thefts, the types of offences most often committed by young people. The other probable reasons explaining the discrepancy could be a growing reluctance to take juveniles to court and an increasing tendency on the part of police to issue unrecorded warnings rather than formal cautions.

Factors Responsible for Criminal Behavior

We might be interested in knowing the factors that might possibly dispose young people toward criminal behavior. We should also like to be informed on the risk factors associated to crime. According to Joseph Rawntree Foundation, young offenders tend to be versatile and rarely specialize in specific crime or violence. Longitudinal research has identified features in the childhood and adult lives of violent offenders and non-violent persistent offenders that are very similar, suggesting that violent offenders are essentially frequent offenders. Studies have also found that young offenders are versatile in committing other types of antisocial behavior, including heavy drinking, drug-taking, dangerous driving and promiscuous sex. Delinquency is, therefore, only one element in a much larger syndrome of antisocial behavior.

A large number of available researches on backgrounds, circumstances, and attitudes of future offenders have identified factors that point to an increased risk of future criminal behavior among children. Some of them as pointed out by the Home Office are troubled home life; poor attainment at school, truancy and school exclusion; drug or alcohol misuse and mental illness; deprivation such as poor housing and homelessness; peer group pressure.

More or less similar set of reasons have been identified by the studies on criminal behavior. Ian Colquhoun identifies major causes of youth crime as follows:

Low income and poor housing; Living in deteriorating inner city areas; A high degree of impulsiveness and hyperactivity; Low intelligence and low attainment; Poor prenatal discipline and harsh erratic discipline; Parental conflict and broken families.

The global report on human settlement points out that a wealth of international data suggests that crime and violence are strongly associated with the growth and proportions of youthful populations, and especially young males. Youth crimes and violence rates are also associated with such environmental factors as level of policing, conviction and imprisonment rates, drug cultures and a host of situational elements that condition people. Across countries, small arms survey and WHO data report that males aged 15-29 account for about half of all firearm related homicides. However, apart from the factors internal to the offenders, the planning and policy measures are significant determinants of crime. "From a planning and public policy standpoint, then, where crimes occur and how places are designed and managed are at least as important as who the perpetrators are...because crime and violence tends to reoccur in relatively limited number of places in cities...generally well known to citizens and police, and occurrences are therefore, reasonably predictable"

Youth and Crime
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I am an accredited freelance writer with 19 years of work experience. I write on diverse topics yet I have special interest in spirituality, self-improvement and new age issues. Thank you for stopping by. http://hubpages.com/hub/Youth-and-Crime

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Tuesday, November 6, 2012

Crime Scene Reconstruction - Rebuilding the Scene of a Crime

When crime scene investigators are called to the scene of a crime, the first thing they do upon their arrival is a walk-through examination in which CSI's get a feel for the scene and organize an approach to collecting evidence. After doing a walk-through the CSI starts to formulate a theory of the crime. This involves focusing on the likely sequence of events and the places and positions of each person present during the crime. The following information may be crucial in finding out the truth of a suspect or the credibility of a witness:

Shoeprints may disclose the offender's steps. Fingerprints may be indicative of the things the offender touched. Physical changes that occur in a corpse may be indicative of whether the corpse was moved moments after or several hours following death. Blood spatters, the angle and severity of blows and stabs, bullet trajectories, and the nature of the victim's injuries can disclose the absolute and relative positions of the attacker, victim, and anybody else who was there during the crime. Tool markings may indicate the places of entry or where safes or locked drawers are forced open.

The CSI scrutinizes every piece of physical evidence to determine whether it backs up his hypothesis considering the information not only gathered at the scene, but also from the forensic laboratory, medical report of findings of anybody who was hurt, and the results of the medical examiner's autopsy. Any piece of information that stands out or does not support his hypothesis of the crime must be reconciled. Otherwise, he must reformulate his theory. As more evidence surfaces, the rebuilding of the crime scene continues to evolve.

Crime Scene Reconstruction - Rebuilding the Scene of a Crime

The criminal investigator constantly tests any new theories against the evidence and avoids making any personal assumptions, no matter how logical they may appear. An investigator may logically conclude that a piece of evidence ended up being at a particular location because of the offender's actions, but if the hard evidence does not support his theory, the theory still remains in question.

If a knife is found outside the living room window of a house where a homicide occurred, the logical thinking suggests that the attacker dropped the knife on his way out. Even though that is certainly possible, without hard evidence, it would be difficult to rule out other possibilities. This only raises the possibility that the knife had been dumped there in a last-ditch effort to make a domestic homicide look like a murder committed by a burglar whom the victim supposedly caught while perpetrating a crime. Evidence such as the husband's fingerprints on the knife or the wife's blood on the husband's shoes may revise that theory. Criminal investigators will not be able to arrive at any absolute conclusions until all the evidence from rebuilding the crime scene is considered and explained.

Crime Scene Reconstruction - Rebuilding the Scene of a Crime
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Thursday, September 6, 2012

Crime and Society

Punishment? Justice? Revenge? "An eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth. Vengeance is mine", sayeth the Lord. I am not a vengeful person and I am not God. I am actually kind and tolerant, but I have a few bones to pick.

The fires that burned so tragically in Southern California have set me to thinking...again...about the nature of crime and its punishment. Certainly, most of those fires are the result of low humidity, high winds and unfortunate accident. I am fairly certain, however, that some of them have been deliberately set. "Fire bugs" tend to take advantage of these sorts of situations; what's one more fire among so many?

Did I mention that I am a kind person? Well, as true as that is, I have some rather strong views about justice. And I am not normally a judgmental person, either.

Crime and Society

I do not believe that, as a society, we deal effectively with those who perpetrate crimes upon our society. If everyone who ever thought about setting a wild fire burning knew for an absolute fact that they themselves would be set on fire as a punishment, how many of them would actually set a fire? Maybe that is a little too cruel of a punishment. Maybe we should just burn to ash everything that they own. Granted some egomaniacs will think that they can not be caught. But you get my point, right?

Our criminals, when caught and prosecuted have a nice, relatively cushy jail cell to look forward to. I am certain that thousands of years ago when mankind first banded together into tribes, they did not tolerate behavior that went against the best interests of the tribe. Individuals who endangered, directly harmed or broke a taboo of the tribe were most likely cast out or shunned. No cozy prison cells with three square meals a day for them. Go out there and make it entirely on your own, buddy.

Whenever I think about crime, it tends to re-open a poorly healed wound. About a year ago, our next door neighbor trespassed on our property with a loaded shot gun. From our backyard, he shot and killed a miniature Dachshund that belonged to the daughter of our backdoor neighbors. They had gone out to dinner and the dog was loose in the fenced yard and had been barking for several hours. His first blast only wounded the poor dog. I will never forget how it screamed. His second shot finished it off. He did not just kill the dog, he also changed the dog owner's and our lives forever; not for the better.

Prior to this incident, our neighbor had been going around to many of us and complaining about lights left on that shined into his bedroom windows at night, noisy children, parties and the like. He wanted his way regardless of what anyone else might want. The little dog sacrificed its life to let us all know the lengths to which this man is willing to go in order to have his way.

Now, I am not advocating that a life be taken as punishment for the taking of a life. Quite possibly the British had it right; but where do you find a nice, completely isolated desert island and how do you keep it that way? Besides, Australia is now a nice place to live.

My husband and I have been shunning our neighbor and his wife (she had the opportunity to stop him), but the people who lived directly behind him have moved away and so has the family that lost their dog. If I thought there was some way to force him to move, I would pursue it. Recently, some of our good friends across the street have started talking to our next door neighbors again. We do not hold this against our friends, but it is a shame.

Our felonious neighbor gets to continue to live in his house (he served no prison time, but did complete several hundred hours of community service at the Humane Society) and continue his life as if he never did anything reproachable. This is just wrong.

I do not know what the ultimate answer is. I wish I did. But I do know that criminal behavior should never be tolerated, forgotten, forgiven or condoned. I believe that we, as a society, owe it to ourselves to find a better solution to the problem of crime and implement it. Sometimes the hard decisions just have to be made. And believe it or not, I would be happy to help make them.

Crime and Society
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Sunday, September 2, 2012

Crime Scene Forensics - Categorizing the Evidence Found at a Crime Scene

Evidence refers to anything that can be used to find out whether a crime has been perpetrated. Evidence may tie a perpetrator to a scene, support or deny an alibi or statement, identify the offender or victim, exonerate an innocent individual, induce a confession, or warrant further investigation.

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All evidence is not the same. Depending on its characteristics and reliability, evidence can be subdivided into numerous categories. For instance, a person's account of a crime falls into a different category than a piece of hair or fiber left behind at the scene.

Evidence can be categorized as follows:

Crime Scene Forensics - Categorizing the Evidence Found at a Crime Scene

Direct-Direct evidence establishes a fact. Circumstantial-Circumstantial evidence requires that a judge or jury make an indirect judgment about what occurred. Physical-Physical evidence refers to any nonliving, inanimate objects such as fingerprints, tool marks, or paint smudges. Biological-Biological evidence involves organic, living items such as blood, urine, or saliva. Reconstructive-Reconstructive evidence is evidence that allows criminal investigators to gain better knowledge of what transpired at the crime scene. For instance, a broken lock can indicate a break-in. Associative-Associative evidence links a suspect to the crime scene. This can include fingerprints, hair, or fibers. Class characteristics-Characteristics of evidence that is unique to a large group of objects. Individual characteristics-Characteristics of evidence that is unique to one person or a small group of individuals.

Once evidence is categorized, the next step in forensics is to analyze the evidence. The reason they analyze the evidence is make identifications and comparisons. Identification involves what specifically a certain item or substance is. Is the white powder heroin or cocaine? Is the brown stain spaghetti sauce or blood? A comparison is made to ascertain whether a known and a suspect item or substance have something in common. For instance, did the hair or blood come from the offender? Do the shards of plastic embedded in the victim's clothing match the plastic turn signal housing of the suspect's car? A forensic scientist can conclude if the two substances are a positive or a negative match.

Once crime scene investigators analyze a piece of evidence, they will derive a linkage, or tie between a perpetrator and a person, place, or object. For instance, the offender's fingerprint or saliva at the scene of a burglary or rape strongly ties the offender to the scene of the crime.

Crime Scene Forensics - Categorizing the Evidence Found at a Crime Scene

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Sunday, August 26, 2012

Tax Evasion Penalties

Tax evasion is illegally avoiding paying taxes, failing to report, or reporting inaccurately. The most common one is failing to report cash income. The government imposes strict and serious penalties for tax evasion.

Tax evasion is different from tax avoidance, which is making use of legal methods to minimize tax due. There are many deductions you can legally claim to reduce your tax liability, for example if you have dependents (the more dependents, the lower your taxes), if you have certain medical expenses or if you contribute to certain retirement plans or to charitable organizations. Taking advantage of them and keeping your tax bill to a minimum is quite legal and if you do that you are guilty of no crime. However, when companies, individuals, or any other legal entities intentionally avoid their legal responsibility, that is tax evasion and the penalties are severe, including prison terms and hefty fines.

The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) oversees the regulation of taxes. It also prosecutes any person or entity that avoids payment of taxes due, and can assess penalties.

Tax Evasion Penalties

The IRS has nearly 3000 special agents who are trained to gather the information used to detect tax evasion. They have access to tax returns, the power to issue a summons for access to further financial information, and the right to seize or freeze monies in the attempt to collect the necessary financial information.

The IRS audits some taxpayers at random each year, but most audits are a result of unusual activity. If a person claims a lot of deductions in proportion to their income, or if a person with a lot of assets declares a very small income, an audit may result. If it is established that taxes have been intentionally evaded, the IRS can levy tax liens, seize assets, freeze money in check and savings accounts, and garnish wages. Any and all properties held by the individual taxpayer can be seized and sold at auction if no attempt is made to repay the liability.

Everyone that is determined to be involved in an evasion of tax liability has the right to meet with the IRS and be heard. Should you find yourself in this situation, it would be wise to engage a tax attorney.

There are three crimes with which an individual may be charged:

* Tax evasion: This is a felony and a conviction can carry a prison sentence of up to five years and/or fines up to 0,000.

* Filing a false return: The government does not have to prove the taxpayer intended to evade tax laws, just that the taxpayer filed a false return. This is a felony and can result in a prison sentence of up to three years and/or fines up to 0,000.

* Failing to file a tax return: This is a misdemeanor and can result in a maximum prison sentence of one year and/or fines totaling up to ,000 for each year for which no return was filed.

Many individual taxpayers rely on accountants and business managers to handle their financial affairs and may not be aware of the status of their finances. However, the individual taxpayer is responsible for the information provided to the IRS. Do yourself a favor and examine your return, understand what you're reading, and check that it is accurate.

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The author believes that filing tax returns should be as simple and painless as possible and that every taxpayer should take advantage of the many ways to legally keep taxes to a minimum. Read more at http://www.taxassistonline.com

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Wednesday, August 22, 2012

World Crime and Murder Trends

Murder Rates (per 1 million people)

1st Columbia 618
2nd South Africa 496
3rd Jamaica 324
5th Russia 202
24th United States 43
30th Finland 28
40th France 17
60th Japan 5

Crime Rates (per 1 million people)

World Crime and Murder Trends

1st Dominica 114,000
2nd New Zealand 106,000
3rd Finland 102,000
4th Denmark 93,000
5th Child 88,000
6th United Kingdom 86,000
8th United States 80,000
10th South Africa 77,000
31st Russia 21,000
37th Jamaica 14,000
59th India 1,000

Columbia is the world leader in murder rates, with 618 murders for every million people. It is significantly high than South Africa, which is second. Jamaica and Venezuela are the next two with Russia the highest European country with 202 murders for every million. The number of murders in the United States has fallen to 43 per million, but figures for Eastern Europe has generally risen.

In many cases the trends differ for crime rates in general. Dominica has the most recorded crime followed by New Zealand, Finland, Denmark, Chile and the United Kingdom.

Although Columbia has the highest murder rate it is not in the top 60 of general crime rates. This is similar with South Africa and Jamaica. These countries have a high amount of drug related crime (although often not reported and therefore not recorded); something that can often lead to disputes and therefore murder. A large proportion of crime in these countries could be attributed to this.

Murder rates are significantly higher in Eastern Europe than Western Europe. Over the last twenty years there has been much political unrest in Eastern Europe, and this is something that can cause crime.

Some countries have high crime rates that would surprise many. Countries that traditionally have had low crime, such as Finland, Denmark and Japan now have higher crime.

Western Europe generally has a low murder rate but a much higher general crime rate. One of the reasons for this could be that a higher percentage of crime is reported. There are also more laws relating to 'lesser' offenses. Speeding and littering, for example, are not illegal in many other areas of the world and it is therefore easier to break the law. Research generally shows that areas of wealth have less crime, and this could be another factor. In some ways New Zealand is similar to this. They have a high crime rate, but low murder rate, with a large proportion of crimes being minor ones.

The United States murder rate has fallen significantly, but overall crime remains relatively high, much like Western Europe. Murder is still more common though, with the fact that guns are legal and easily obtainable likely to be a contributing factor. Violent crime has been reduced though, and this is partly due to greater effort being made by the authorities. New York is a good example of this, with crime rates, and especially violent crime having fallen by a large margin over the last ten to fifteen years.

Crime rates are extremely low in India and China. Some would argue that these areas have high morals and therefore lower crime. You could also argue though, that there are more severe punishments for crime, and therefore it is less worth the risk.

World Crime and Murder Trends

Criminal Solicitors London

Statistics from http://www.nationmaster.com

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Wednesday, August 15, 2012

The Psychology of Addiction

On why addiction is largely a state of the mind so addicts are more addicted to their addiction, the temporary feeling of pleasure, rather than the drugs...

Addiction is primarily psychological although addiction is defined according to the physiological changes in the body, and addiction continues to be considered as a social, cultural, genetic and experiential process as well. Addictive behaviour could be explained as any behaviour that gives temporary or short term pleasure and also provides relief from discomfort although there may be long term adverse effects.

Crime

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Addiction is generally described as dependence on any drug and results from substance abuse. Any drug or alcohol can produce addiction as can other things such as the internet, gaming, gadgets, chocolates etc. However the physical and psychological effects of drugs and alcohol are detrimental and actually result in loss of productivity, withdrawal and physical dependence and lack of attention and such other conditions. The primary feature of addiction is dependence as an individual shows increased psychological and physiological dependence on the substance he is addicted to and without the addictive substance the person is unable to return to normal life.

The Psychology of Addiction

Dependence on anything may not be too bad and some amount of social dependence is expected of us as social beings. However when there is excessive dependence with inability to live without the substance in question, then withdrawal symptoms result and there are physiological changes in the body including pain and in some cases medical attention is required. Addiction is an extreme dependence and can cause people to lose sense of reality as people become cripple without the substance they are addicted to. Addiction leads to crime and anti-social behaviour as addicts can resort to violent behaviour, to stealing, to murder simply to attain what they want. Addiction to a substance could be separated from healthy use of the substance such as some amount of alcohol is considered acceptable and healthy in a social setting but being completely dependent on alcohol to that which amounts to addiction can have adverse social and personal implications for the individual. Some of the common addictive drugs and substances are opium, alcohol, nicotine and barbiturates. Giving up any addiction, requires strength and this is largely the strength of the mind that aids in stopping any addictive behaviour. Thus if addiction is a disease, the cure of addiction or even its prevention is largely a psychological process suggesting that the 'mind' is responsible for the addiction, the beginning of it and also the end of it.

Using addictive substances stimulate and release the pleasure inducing neurotransmitters in the brain and the dependence on this feeling of pleasure leads to more such pleasure seeking behaviour and this can spiral out of control and doesn't remain within the control of the individual who then is completely controlled by his addiction rather than the other way round. Withdrawal or abstinence symptoms of an addictive substance could include anxiety, depression, craving, irritability, restlessness or even thoughts of suicide with fatal consequences. Craving, irritability, depression, anxiety are all psychological withdrawal symptoms of addiction although closely related to the physical withdrawal symptoms. So addiction is largely in the mind and if a person wants, he or she can overcome this extreme dependence on an activity or a substance through self control and with better insight into his condition.

Why do people develop addiction?

People who develop addiction are more prone to mental illnesses as addiction has been related to mood or affective disorders, to neurotic illnesses and obsessive disorders, to anxiety disorders and many other psychological problems. Addiction is largely akin to compulsion or the need to repeat any particular behaviour in an abnormal dependent manner and addiction like compulsion is an abnormal dependence. Addicts are obsessed with the substance or objects or activity that they are addicted to and show an abnormal dependence on the substance or activity. Individuals with mood disorders or people prone to frequent depression are prone to addiction as any addictive substance or drug or even activity such as sex that gives short term pleasure can cause the addict to return to this activity or substance again and again so that the depression is forgotten for a while. This need for short term pleasure leads to repeated pleasure seeking behaviour and thus creates addiction.

All human beings are necessarily pleasure seekers, we all like to experience that is good or beautiful or provides a moment of happiness but addicts are in turn addicted to this pleasure as well. In fact addicts are addicted to the pleasure and not to the drugs, which are simply catalysts to provide them this pleasure. The drugs and the objects as also the activities that they repeatedly engage in provide them a solace that they feel they would not find in other options. There are of course chemical changes in the body so there are substantive proofs that addicts do get short term pleasure. Thus a drug addict repeated uses drug because it provides a particular form of pleasure that he will not get by say watching films and a sex addict repeatedly seeks sex because the pleasure from sex according to her may not be found in other activities such as travelling or reading. However this is only a belief that the addict has and is not necessarily true. In fact there is a sort of fixation of want, and an obsession with the object of want so an addict repeatedly thinks about this want and convinces himself that without the addictive substance he will not be able to survive. When love becomes an addiction, it can lead to suicide or fatal consequences when the object of desire is not attained.

Addicts are thus obsessed and largely depressed individuals who sometimes use the obsession against the depression or to overcome the depression. They are socially withdrawn although they may apparently have a huge circle of friends with whom they may not be able to relate at all levels. Addicts are also susceptible to suggestion and they are vulnerable to opinions of other people. Strange that it may sound, it is easy to mould or change addicts and also easy to hypnotize them as they are very impressionable and easily affected by what people and society have to say about them. This weakness of addicts is also their strength as both negative and positive influences can act equally well on addicts and the right guidance would be necessary to show them what is good for them and what is bad.

How is addiction controlled and stopped?

Stopping or overcoming any addiction could be a challenge but as addicts are changeable and affected easily, it may be relatively easy to bring them back to normal life provided they have the right type of guidance and counselling.

One of the strategies that could be used to cure addictive behaviour would be 'diversion', providing alternative substances/activities or shifting their attention or interest into something other than the addictive substance or object. As a TV addict could be encouraged to develop more constructive habits of reading for instance.

'Substitution' would be another method and a person addicted to alcohol could be encouraged to take a drink that tastes like wine but does not contain alcohol.

'Eradication' or complete unavailability of the addictive substance or object can gradually lead to forgetting the pleasure giving substance and interests in other activities. The complete unavailability of a drug, even a sleeping pill can lead to lessening of addiction for that drug and help the addict to develop other interests, although this should not be done abruptly as physiological and psychological symptoms of withdrawal may result. So if someone is addicted to a specific medicine or pill, the doses could be slowly reduced before completely stopping intake of the drug.

Finally 'suggestion' or counselling to change behaviour highlighting the bad effects of a drug or an obsessive activity could be effective at a later stage after withdrawal from the drug or activity has been attempted as when in need of any substance, addicts lose all sense of reality and may not even want to listen to advice. So, only when their dependence reduces to an extent with the help of the other methods of substitution, eradication or diversion, counselling could help them to show more reasonable and socially responsible behaviour and prevent further conditions of relapse.

The Psychology of Addiction

Reflections in Psychology - Part I - by Saberi Roy (2009)
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